Extraction of inclusive photon production at midrapidity in p + p and Au + Au collisions at sNN = 200 GeV

Extraction of inclusive photon production at midrapidity in p + p and Au + Au collisions at <math id="M1"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msub><mi>s</mi><mrow><mtext>N</mtext><mi>N</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV 1 2 first-author https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4042-7063 3 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3834-5026 1 corresp Corresponding author, ephy@ustc.edu.cn Corresponding author, ephy@ustc.edu.cn ephy@ustc.edu.cn https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3288-6195 1 1 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0849-4637 1 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6739-9648 1 1 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2268-5624 1 1 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4247-0081 1 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6094-9574 University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA We present a comprehensive study on the individual sources of an inclusive photon production during high-energy hadronic collisions. The cross-section and invariant yields of inclusive photons are obtained as a function of p T at mid-rapidity (| y | < 0.5) in p + p and Au + Au collisions at <math id="M2"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msub><mi>s</mi><mrow><mtext>N</mtext><mi>N</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV, respectively. These results provide crucial inputs to separate measurements of open bottom and charm hadron yield suppression in heavy-ion collisions, which are used to test the mass hierarchy of the parton energy loss in the quark gluon plasma created during these collisions. The procedure developed in this study can also be applied to other measurements of electrons from an open heavy-flavor hadron decay, such as the collective flow in the RHIC beam energy scan program. Inclusive photon Cross-section Invariant yields Mass hierarchy Technical reference 1 Introduction 1 Searching for a novel form of nuclear matter with deconfined quarks and gluons, created during ultra-relativistic heavy-ion collisions, is one of the main goals of high-energy nuclear physics. Many measurements from the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC) and the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiments show that this strongly coupled matter, usually referred to as quark-gluon plasma (QGP), have indeed been formed [ 1 1 - 4 4 1-4 ]. The next step is to study its properties in detail. Heavy quarks ( c and b ) are predominantly produced during the early stages of heavy-ion collisions before the creation of the QGP [ 5 5 , 6 6 ]. They subsequently traverse the QGP throughout its evolution, and thus can serve as an excellent probe for studying the properties of the QGP. Heavy flavor quarks are expected to suffer from collisional and radiative energy losses through interactions with the QGP. The nuclear modification factor ( R AA ) is utilized to quantify such energy loss by comparing the yields of open heavy flavor production in heavy-ion collisions with those during p + p collisions. Significant suppression of the charm meson yielded at large transverse momenta ( p T), resulting from the substantial energy loss of heavy quarks in the QGP, has been observed at both the RHIC and LHC [ 7 7 - 12 12 7-12 ], indicating strong interactions between heavy quarks and the medium. This energy loss is expected to be different for bottom and charm quarks owing to their different masses [ 13 13 ]. Separate measurements of open bottom and open charm hadron production during heavy-ion collisions are crucial to testing the mass hierarchy of the parton energy loss in the QGP. For open bottom hadron production at RHIC, they are only measured indirectly through their decay products, such as electrons, J/Ψ , and D 0 , owing to the low production rates and small branching ratios for the hadronic decay channels. Measurements of R AA for J/Ψ and D 0 from open bottom hadron decay are currently limited owing to a lack of reference measurements during p + p collisions [ 14 14 ]. By contrast, owing to their relatively large branching ratios, the R AA of the electrons from open bottom and charm hadron decay can be obtained separately using the following ingredients: i) R AA of inclusive heavy-flavor electrons (HFEs) from open bottom and charm hadron decay, ii) the contribution of open bottom hadron decay to HFE in 200 GeV p + p collisions measured through azimuthal correlations between HFEs and associated hadrons [ 15 15 ], iii) the contribution of open bottom hadron decay to HFEs in Au + Au collisions at <math id="M3"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msub><mi>s</mi><mrow><mtext>N</mtext><mi>N</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV with displaced vertices or a data driven technique [ 16 16 ] making use of the precise measurement of displaced vertices from the Heavy Flavor Tracker (HFT) [ 17 17 ] at the Solenoidal Tracker At RHIC (STAR). In the measurements of HFE spectra in p + p and Au + Au collisions, the HFE sample can be obtained by statistically subtracting the background photonic electrons from the inclusive electron sample. Photonic electrons arise from Dalitz decay of light-neutral mesons and photon conversions in the detector material. Owing to the extremely low signal-to-background ratio, it is crucial to extract the background electron yields and kinematic distributions accurately for precise measurements of HFE spectra. Furthermore, the contribution of the open bottom hadron decays to the HFE sample in Au + Au collisions is obtained through a template fitting to the distribution of the distance of the closest approach (DCA) to the collision vertex for inclusive electrons [ 14 14 ]. Contributions from photonic electrons are included in the templates. Another important observation is the charm angular correlation, which is believed to be a sensitive probe of the medium dynamics during the early stage of the collisions [ 18 18 ]. Measurements of the charm angular correlation when reconstructing the open charm mesons are extremely challenging, and an indirect measurement of the correlation between their decay electrons requires inclusive photon yields as well. However, it is difficult to directly measure the inclusive photon spectrum experimentally, and a cocktail-like method is usually applied. In this paper, we report an indirect measurement of inclusive photon spectra as a function of p T at mid-rapidity (| y | < 0.5) in p + p collisions and different centrality classes of Au+Au collisions at <math id="M4"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msub><mi>s</mi><mrow><mtext>N</mtext><mi>N</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV. There are five main sources of photon production: π 0 and η two-body decays, π 0 and η Dalitz decays, and direct photons. Direct photon distributions were obtained based on the available measurements and an extrapolation. Photons from π 0 and η decay are extracted using PYTHIA for decay kinematics with measured π 0 and η distributions as inputs. In previous studies [ 19 19 ], the rapidity distributions for π 0 and η are assumed to be flat, whereas more realistic shapes are used in this work. In addition, contributions from π 0 and η Dalitz decays to the inclusive photon production are taken into account, which were omitted in previous studies. The paper is organized as follows: PYTHIA settings, cross-section, and invariant yields as a function of p T for inclusive photons in p + p and Au + Au collisions are presented in Sect. 2. A summary is given in Sect. 3. 2 Results 1 2.1 PYTHIA decay process 2 PYTHIA is an event generator widely used in high-energy particle and nuclear physics communities [ 20 20 ]. In this study, PYTHIA6.319 was used to decay π 0 and η mesons into photons through both two-photon and Dalitz decay channels for both p + p and Au+Au collisions. The p T and rapidity distributions of π 0 and η mesons are obtained from experimental measurements. Information on daughter particles was stored for further analysis. 2.2 p + p Collisions at <math id="M5"><mrow><msqrt><mi>s</mi></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV 2 The four-momenta of parent particles ( π 0 and η ) are input to PYTHIA for decay into photons. The measured π 0 cross-section at mid-rapidity (| η | < 0.35) from the PHENIX collaboration [ 21 21 - 23 23 21-23 ] and calculated π 0 (( π + + π - )/2) cross section at mid rapidity (| y | < 0.1 and | y | < 0.5) from the STAR collaboration [ 24 24 - 28 28 24-28 ] during p + p collisions at <math id="M6"><mrow><msqrt><mi>s</mi></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV are shown in Fig. 1 (a) Fig. 1 (a) . The η meson cross-section was measured at mid-rapidity by both STAR (| y | < 0.5 and 0 < η < 1) and PHENIX (| η | < 0.35) collaborations [ 21 21 , 29 29 - 31 31 29-31 ], as shown in Fig. 1 (a) Fig. 1 (a) . Their cross-sections as a function of p T, assumed to have a similar shape in different mid-rapidity intervals, are parameterized using the Tsallis statistics <math display="block" id="M10"><mrow><mi>E</mi><mfrac><mrow><msup><mtext>d</mtext><mn>3</mn></msup><mi>N</mi></mrow><mrow><mtext>d</mtext><msup><mi>p</mi><mn>3</mn></msup></mrow></mfrac><mo>=</mo><msub><mi>C</mi><mi>n</mi></msub><msub><mi>m</mi><mi>T</mi></msub><msup><mrow><mrow><mo>(</mo><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>+</mo><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><mi>q</mi><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn><mo stretchy="false">)</mo><mfrac><mrow><msub><mi>m</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub></mrow><mi>T</mi></mfrac></mrow><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn><mo>/</mo><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><mi>q</mi><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn><mo stretchy="false">)</mo></mrow></msup><mn>,</mn></mrow></math> where <math id="M11"><mrow><msub><mi>m</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub><mo>=</mo><msqrt><mrow><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><msubsup><mi>p</mi><mtext>T</mtext><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo>+</mo><msup><mi>m</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo stretchy="false">)</mo></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> , m is the particle mass, and C n , q , and T are free parameters. The fitting results, shown as solid lines in Fig. 1 (a) Fig. 1 (a) , are used as inputs. The input rapidity distributions of π 0 and η are parameterized based on Landau hydrodynamics, with a Gaussian-like function <math id="M12"><mrow><msup><mstyle mathsize="140%" displaystyle="true"><mrow><mi>cosh</mi></mrow></mstyle><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>2</mn></mrow></msup><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><mfrac><mrow><mn>3</mn><mi>y</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>4</mn><msub><mi>σ</mi><mrow><mtext>Landau</mtext></mrow></msub><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><mn>1</mn><mo>−</mo><mfrac><mrow><msup><mi>y</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn><msqrt><mi>s</mi></msqrt><mo>/</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></mfrac><mo stretchy="false">)</mo></mrow></mfrac><mo stretchy="false">)</mo></mrow></math> , where <math id="M13"><mrow><msub><mi>σ</mi><mrow><mtext>Landau</mtext></mrow></msub><mo>=</mo><msqrt><mrow><mi>ln</mi><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><msqrt><mi>s</mi></msqrt><mo>/</mo><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><mn>2</mn><msub><mi>m</mi><mtext>N</mtext></msub><mo stretchy="false">)</mo><mo stretchy="false">)</mo></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> , <math id="M14"><mrow><msqrt><mi>s</mi></msqrt></mrow></math> is the nucleon-nucleon center of mass energy, m is the particle mass, and m N is a nucleon mass [ 32 32 , 33 33 ]. These are shown in Fig. 1 (b) Fig. 1 (b) . The parent particle production is isotropic in azimuth, and therefore, their azimuthal angle ( ϕ ) distributions are sampled uniformly within the 0∼2 π range. With the input distributions extracted, the p T distributions of photons from π 0 and η decay are obtained using PYTHIA and normalized based on the branching ratio of π 0 / η → e + e - γ/γγ and π 0 / η d N /d y . The p T distributions of the decayed photons are shown in Fig. 1 (d) Fig. 1 (d) . In addition, the direct photon contribution is based on the PHENIX measurement of the direct photon cross-section as a function of p T during 200 GeV p + p collisions at mid-rapidity (| η | < 0.35), fitted using a power-law function <math id="M15"><mrow><mi>a</mi><msup><mrow><mo stretchy="false">(</mo><mn>1</mn><mo>+</mo><mfrac><mrow><msubsup><mi>p</mi><mtext>T</mtext><mn>2</mn></msubsup></mrow><mi>b</mi></mfrac><mo stretchy="false">)</mo></mrow><mi>c</mi></msup></mrow></math> , where a , b , and c are free parameters [ 34 34 - 36 36 34-36 ]. The data points and the fit curve are shown in Fig. 1 (c) Fig. 1 (c) . The inclusive photon cross-section is obtained by summing π 0 and η meson decayed and direct photons, as shown in Fig. 1 (d) Fig. 1 (d) . 2.3 Au+Au Collisions at <math id="M16"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msub><mi>s</mi><mrow><mtext>N</mtext><mi>N</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV 2 The inclusive photon invariant yields at mid-rapidity in Au + Au collisions at <math id="M17"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msub><mi>s</mi><mrow><mtext>N</mtext><mi>N</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV are obtained using a similar approach as for p + p collisions described in Section 3.1. One notable difference is that the π 0 and η production yields and p T distributions are modified in the QGP mainly owing to the collective flow and paton energy loss. In addition to the contributions from the initial hard scatterings and jet fragmentation to the direct photon production, the thermal photon radiation, mainly from the partonic phase of the medium created during heavy-ion collisions, is also included in this category. The invariant yields of π 0 as a function of p T, inferred from the STAR measurement (( π + + π - )/2, | y | < 0.5) [ 37 37 ] and directly measured through the PHENIX experiment (| y | < 0.35) [ 38 38 , 39 39 ], are shown in Fig. 2 (a) Fig. 2 (a) for Au + Au collisions of different centrality classes. Good agreements are seen among the different measurements in the overlapping kinematic range. Because of in-medium modifications of these yields compared to those in p + p collisions [ 40 40 ], the modified Tsallis function is used to fit the p T spectra: <math display="block" id="M20"><mrow><mtable columnalign="left"><mtr columnalign="left"><mtd columnalign="left"><mrow><mi>E</mi><mfrac><mrow><msup><mtext>d</mtext><mn>3</mn></msup><mi>N</mi></mrow><mrow><mtext>d</mtext><msup><mi>p</mi><mn>3</mn></msup></mrow></mfrac></mrow></mtd><mtd columnalign="left"><mrow><mo>=</mo><msub><mi>A</mi><mn>1</mn></msub><msup><mrow><mrow><mo>[</mo><mrow><mi>exp</mi><mrow><mo>(</mo><mrow><mo>−</mo><mfrac><mrow><mi>β</mi><msub><mi>p</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>p</mi><mn>1</mn></msub></mrow></mfrac></mrow><mo>)</mo></mrow><mo>+</mo><mfrac><mrow><msub><mi>m</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>p</mi><mn>1</mn></msub></mrow></mfrac></mrow><mo>]</mo></mrow></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><msub><mi>n</mi><mn>1</mn></msub></mrow></msup><mo>:</mo><msub><mi>p</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub><mo><</mo><msub><mi>p</mi><mrow><msub><mtext>T</mtext><mrow><mtext>th</mtext></mrow></msub></mrow></msub><mn>,</mn></mrow></mtd></mtr><mtr columnalign="left"><mtd columnalign="left"><mrow><mi>E</mi><mfrac><mrow><msup><mtext>d</mtext><mn>3</mn></msup><mi>N</mi></mrow><mrow><mtext>d</mtext><msup><mi>p</mi><mn>3</mn></msup></mrow></mfrac></mrow></mtd><mtd columnalign="left"><mrow><mo>=</mo><msub><mi>A</mi><mn>2</mn></msub><msup><mrow><mrow><mo>[</mo><mrow><mfrac><mi>B</mi><mrow><msub><mi>p</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow></mfrac><msup><mrow><mrow><mo>(</mo><mrow><mfrac><mrow><msub><mi>p</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>0</mn></msub></mrow></mfrac></mrow><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow><mi>α</mi></msup><mo>+</mo><mfrac><mrow><msub><mi>m</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub></mrow><mrow><msub><mi>p</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow></mfrac></mrow><mo>]</mo></mrow></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><msub><mi>n</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow></msup><mo>:</mo><msub><mi>p</mi><mtext>T</mtext></msub><mo>></mo><msub><mi>p</mi><mrow><msub><mtext>T</mtext><mrow><mtext>th</mtext></mrow></msub></mrow></msub><mn>,</mn></mrow></mtd></mtr></mtable></mrow></math> where A 1 , β , p 1 , n 1 , A 2 , B , p 2 , q 0 , and n 2 are free parameters. This function takes into account the thermal production and collective effects at a low p T and the parton energy loss effect at a high p T [ 40 40 ]. We found that this function can describe well the π 0 spectra with p T th = 7 GeV/ c . The fitting results are also shown in Fig. 2 (a) Fig. 2 (a) as solid curves. The error bands arise from point-to-point uncertainties in the data. The rapidity distribution for π 0 is assumed to be the same as that in the p + p collisions, as shown in Fig. 1 (b) Fig. 1 (b) . Because of the limited precision and kinematic coverage by the available measurements of η meson invariant yields, the p T spectrum shape is obtained by utilizing the m T scaling method [ 19 19 ], that is, taking the parameterized p T spectrum shape for π 0 ( Fig. 2 (a) Fig. 2 (a) ) and replacing its p T with <math id="M21"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msubsup><mi>p</mi><mtext>T</mtext><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo>+</mo><msubsup><mi>m</mi><mi>η</mi><mn>2</mn></msubsup><mo>−</mo><msubsup><mi>m</mi><mrow><msup><mi>π</mi><mn>0</mn></msup></mrow><mn>2</mn></msubsup></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> . To obtain the absolute normalization, the yield ratios of η to π 0 from measurements [ 31 31 ] are 0.4±0.04( stat )±0.02( sys ), with no strong p T or centrality dependencies observed. This ratio is used to fix the normalization for η meson-invariant yields in all centrality bins, shown as the solid bands in Fig. 2 (b) Fig. 2 (b) . Also shown in Fig. 2 (b) Fig. 2 (b) are the measurements of η meson-invariant yields at mid-rapidity (| η | < 0.35) [ 41 41 ], which are seen to agree spectra quite well with the parameterized p T. As a consistent check, this method is also applied to p + p collisions, and the result from m T scaling for η meson is seen to agree with the experimental measurement down to 1 GeV/ c . Similar to the case of π 0 , the rapidity distribution of the η meson is also assumed to be the same as that during p + p collisions, as shown in Fig. 1 (b) Fig. 1 (b) . Invariant yields of direct photons at mid-rapidity (| y | < 1) in different centralities of 200 GeV Au+Au collisions were measured using the STAR experiment [ 42 42 ], as shown in Fig. 3 (a) Fig. 3 (a) . They are fitted with an exponential function plus the fit to the corresponding distribution in p + p collisions scaled by N coll [ 43 43 ], that is, Ae - p T/ T + N coll × A pp (1+ p T 2 / b ) -n , where A , T , A pp , b , and n are free parameters, and N coll is the number of binary nucleon–nucleon collisions in different Au + Au centrality classes. The first term is used to describe the thermal photon radiation, whereas the second term is motivated by the fact that photons do not interact strongly with the QGP, and thus do not exhibit a spectrum modification compared to the p + p collisions. To obtain the direct photon yields in 0%–10% and 10%–20% centralities that are not measured, the following extrapolation procedure [ 25 25 ] is used: • Obtain d N /d y /⟨0.5 N part ⟩ as a function of N part , where d N /d y is the integrated direct photon yield based on the fit to the measured spectrum, and N part is the number of participating nucleons in each centrality class. • Fit d N /d y /⟨0.5 N part ⟩ versus N part with a second-order polynomial function, and extrapolate the inclusive direct photon yields in desired centrality bins. Such a distribution and the fit are shown in Fig. 3 (b) Fig. 3 (b) . • The shapes of the invariant yields for direct photons in 0%–10% and 10%–20% centrality bins are taken to be the same as that of the 0%–20% centrality class, as shown in Fig. 3 (a) Fig. 3 (a) . Normalization is based on the extrapolated inclusive direct photon yields. The resulting invariant yields of direct photons in 0%–10% and 10%–20% centrality bins are shown in Fig. 3 (c) Fig. 3 (c) as dash-dotted curves. With all ingredients in hand, invariant yields of inclusive photons are obtained with contributions from π 0 and η two-body and Dalitz decays, and direct photon production. These are shown as solid curves in Fig. 4 Fig. 4 with different panels corresponding to different centrality classes. The dashed and dotted lines represent individual sources. The integrated IPT yields per unit rapidity at mid-rapidity for different centrality classes are summarized in Table 1 Table 1 , along with those from each component. The contribution from π 0 two-body decay is the dominant source of photon production at low p T, whereas the contribution from direct photon production increases with increasing p T and overtakes that from π 0 two-body decay at high p T. In all cases, the neutral meson Dalitz decays constitute less than 1% of inclusive photons within the entire kinematic range. 1 1 Centrality 1 1 Inclusive γ 1 1 π 0 → γγ 1 1 η → γγ 1 1 π 0 → e + e -γ 1 1 η → e + e -γ 1 1 Direct γ 1 1 0-80% 1 1 211.631±5.738 1 1 199.111±5.446 1 1 9.790±1.128 1 1 1.182±0.049 1 1 0.086±0.011 1 1 1.463±0.164 1 1 0-10% 1 1 531.632±14.465 1 1 492.109±13.231 1 1 26.346±3.040 1 1 2.922±0.119 1 1 0.230±0.030 1 1 10.025±2.318 1 1 10-20% 1 1 382.744±10.274 1 1 356.553±9.598 1 1 18.599±2.144 1 1 2.117±0.086 1 1 0.163±0.021 1 1 5.313±1.022 1 1 20-40% 1 1 231.482±6.336 1 1 217.013±5.998 1 1 10.672±1.231 1 1 1.288±0.053 1 1 0.093±0.012 1 1 2.415±0.242 1 1 40-60% 1 1 98.370±3.104 1 1 93.218±2.996 1 1 4.299±0.499 1 1 0.553±0.025 1 1 0.038±0.005 1 1 0.262±0.035 1 1 60-80% 1 1 32.077±0.739 1 1 30.476±0.702 1 1 1.331±0.152 1 1 0.181±0.007 1 1 0.012±0.001 1 1 0.078±0.010 3 Summary 1 The inclusive photon cross-section and invariant yields as a function of p T at mid-rapidity (| y | < 0.5) were extracted for p + p and Au + Au collisions at <math id="M24"><mrow><msqrt><mrow><msub><mi>s</mi><mrow><mtext>N</mtext><mi>N</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></msqrt></mrow></math> = 200 GeV, respectively. 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C 95 , 034907 ( 2017 ). doi: 10.1103/PhysRevC.95.034907 http://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevC.95.034907 Elliptic flow of electrons from heavy-flavor hadron decays in Au+Au collisions at sNN = 200, 62.4, and 39 GeV Studying the Phase Diagram of QCD Matter at RHIC . https://drupal.star.bnl.gov/STAR/files/BES_WPII_ver6.9_Cover.pdfhttps://drupal.star.bnl.gov/STAR/files/BES_WPII_ver6.9_Cover.pdf Studying the Phase Diagram of QCD Matter at RHIC All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Sheng-Hui Zhang. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Sheng-Hui Zhang and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. 10.1007/s41365-020-00840-4 This work was supported by National Key Research and Development Program of China (Nos. 2018YFE0205200, 2018YFE0104700, and 2020YFE0202002), National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 11890712), Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Province (No. 1808085J02), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (No. WK2030000013) and the Project funded by the China Postdoctoral Science Foundation (No. 2019M652177). 2020-10-26 2020-11-30 2020-12-01 2021-01-19 2021-01-01 2021-12-20 © China Science Publishing & Media Ltd. (Science Press), Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics, the Chinese Academy of Sciences, ChineseNuclear Society and Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 This is a post-peer-review, pre-copyedit version of an article published in Nuclear Science and Techniques. The final authenticated version is available online at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41365-020-00840-4 http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s41365-020-00840-4 . 2021 Nuclear Science and Techniques 01 32